Unit One Grade 12 Biology Study Notes Essay Example for Free

Unit One Grade 12 Biology Study Notes Essay Lipids (Fats, phospholipids, sterols) Fats used to insulate the body as well as protect organs SATURATED -better for you -one or more double bonds between carbons -less hydrogens -oils (sunflower, flax) -lower melting point UNSATURATED -worse for you -single bonds between carbons -more hydrogens -animal fats -higher melting points Phospholipid -2 fatty acids, 1 glycerol, phosphate group, + choline group -hydrophobic tails -hydrophilic heads Phospholipid Bilayer Groupings of phospholipids move together and create a protective membrane with the hydrophilic heads one the outside and very inside of the cell and the hydrophobic tails facing one another. Sterols -4 hydrocarbon chains fused together -many functional groups attached CHOLESTEROL -a big part of the cell membrane cells turn cholesterol into vitamin D and bile salts Carbohydrates (mono, di, poly saccharides) Monosaccharides- hold energy and store it for cellular respiration Simple sugars – provide short term energy and storage -most common one is Glucose (C6H12O) -glactose and fructose are chemical isomers meaning they have the same chemical formula but different structures. Disaccharides 2 monosaccharides combined glucose + glucose = maltose Polysaccharides Many monosaccharides combined together to create STARCH, CELLULOSE and GLYCOGEN Starch (amylose-simpler diagram)- long term energy and storage Glycogen (more branched diagram) unused glucose is turned into glycogen and stored for later use Cellulose- plant cells are made of this which is why they are rigid. Used in digestion in humans, cleans out colon and intestines. Proteins – building blocks of life Amino acids – organic compound containing an amino and a carboxyl group Have R-groups or side chains that are responsible for how it bonds with other amino acids. The bonds between amino acids are peptide bonds. NON POLAR LIKES NON POLAR POLAR LIKES POLAR POSITIVE LIKES NEGATIVE Primary structure A bunch of amino acids bind together through a certain sequence coded in the DNA -the number and order of acids is specific to each different protein Secondary Structure Peptide chains begin to bond with each other through the r groups. Bonds done in the secondary structure are usually done between amino acids close together. This causes the polypeptide chain to become ALPHA HELIX or a BETA PLEATED SHEET -main bonds are hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl and oxygen atoms Tertiary Structure More bonds occur between amino acids but this time they are father apart from each other causing it to bend and fold even more 4 bonds DISULPHIDE BOND- a bond between cysteine amino acids ELECTROSTATIC BOND- an ionic bond between negative a positive side chains HYDROGEN BONDS- a bond between polar r-groups HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS- a bond between non-polar r-groups Quatrinary Structure Highest level of organization The bonding of two or more tertiary proteins, making a lot of proteins into functional proteins. Dehydration synthesis- removal of h2o and putting two molecules together Hydrolasis- adding of water and breaking apart two molecules Redox- give an electron away = oxidized, getting an electron = reduced Homeostasis The constant state cells try to be Certain things pass in and out of the cell at specific times and rates so that the internal environment stays stable. Concentration gradient- difference between and are of high and an area of low concentration Brownian motion- the continuous movement and collision between molecules in a liquid Passive transport – needs no energy Simple diffusion- the movement of molecules from an area of high to low concentration. Small uncharged molecules like oxygen are passed through the membrane of a cell easily so that the cell can have oxygen. Osmosis- movement of water across a semi permeable membrane from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration SITUATIONS Facilitated diffusion- movement of molecules that are too big to be passed through the phospholipid bilayer or are not lipid soluble. Protiens throughout the membrane assist with the movement Carrier protiens – move only specific molecules. Bind to that molecule and go through a series of movements and shape changing to move the molecule into the cell and then goes through those steps again to return to its original shape. Channel protiens- proteins with a hole in the middle that allows bigger molecules to pass in and out of the cell. Active transport- requires extra energy Cells need higher concentrations of certain nutrients to survive so sometimes molecules are moved against the concentration gradient using applied energy. moving them against the concentration gradient is active transport Sodium potassium pump Bulk transportation Not many materials are too big to pass through the cell membrane. For those that cant, the cell membrane can wrap around the molecule to absorb it. Endocytosis -when the cell wraps around the molecule to absorb it -pinocytosis- cell â€Å"drinking†, small drop of extracellular fluid with small molecules within it (most common) -phagocytosis- cell â€Å"eating†, large drop of extracellular fluid with organic or bacterial molecules Exocytosis -when the vesicle moves to the outside. The vesicle fixes the cell membrane and the contents are moved out of the cell Cell membrane Acts as a barrier for the cell, protecting the internal environment from the external environment. Cell membranes around the cell as well as around the organelles. -regulates what goes in and out of the cells and organelles 4 components= phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates phospholipid bilayer 2 fatty acids, 1 glycerol, phosphate group, + choline group provides the physical barrier separates the extracellular fluids from the intracellular fluids proteins GLOBULAR -integral= bound in the hydrophobic interior of the cell -peripheral=bound in the hydrophilic exterior of the cell FIBROUS -figments of the cytoskeleton= microtubules creating a framework for the membrane cholesterol act as patching system and gives the cell fluidity carbohydrates can connect to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) and act as communicators between cells Enzymes Biological catalysts Speed up reactions 1000000x Reduce required reaction energy Very sensitive to their environment When exposed to extreme conditions they can â€Å"denature† and become completely dysfunctional Aren’t created nor destroyed during a reaction pH and temperature affect the activity of an enzyme because they will only work at there maximum when in the perfect conditions. Anything other than that wont be optimal and eventually cause the enzyme to denature. Enzymes are proteins with a depression called the active site. R groups stick out of the active side and attract substrates with similar R groups. The catalyzing occurs in the active site. How is the active site shape determined by the 4 levels of protein structure? -polypeptide chain- sequence of amino acids and how the r groups react with eachother which causes a shape -then they fold and bend into secondary and tertiary structure causing for the final shape -the substrate is polar so the r groups facing out into the active site have to have some sort of polarity to attract it. SIMPLE ENZYMES- enzymes made only of protein and the function results from the 3D arrangement of the amino acids CONJUGATED ENZYMES- enzymes with both protein and non protein parts a) apoenzyme- protein part of the enzyme b) cofactor-non protein part, close to active site. WITHIN A COFACTOR -coenzyme= vitamins that are altered during a reaction. These have to be replaced by unaltered molecules before a new substrate can attach -activators=minerals (metal ions) not only do environmental factors (pH and temperature) effect enzymes but substances can inhibit the actions of an enzyme. Competitive inhibiters- so similar to the substrate that they enter the active site and block the substrate from bonding with the enzyme. This can be reversed by adding more concentration of the substrate. Non-competitive inhibiters- attach to a different part of the enzyme and cause the shape to change so the substrates cant bond correctly Allosteric sites- some enzymes have allosteric sites a ways away from the active site. When substrates attach to it they can inhibit or simulate enzyme activity. Binding an activator to an allosteric site stabilizes the proteins conformation and leaves all active sites open. Binding an allosteric inhibitor stabilizes inactive forms of the enzyme.

Robinson Crusoe Essay -- essays research papers

The Progression of the Eighteenth Century Novel Shows How Society Takes Over the Role of God The progression of the Eighteenth Century novel charts the transformation of the role of God into the role of society. In Daniel Defoe’s early Eighteenth Century novel, Robinson Crusoe, God makes the laws, gives out the punishments, and creates the terror. By the end of the century, the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror announce to the world that society is taking over the role of God and now people will make laws, give out punishments, and incite terror. Early Eighteenth Century novel, Robinson Crusoe, shows the development of a new self, one conflicted with the idea of both relying on God’s Providence while also realizing their own power to make things happen. The novel shows the development of Homo Economico, the economic man. With the voyages to the new colonies, many lower and middle class men prove able to create their own fortunes overnight. The concept of the Gre at Chain of Being becomes lost when members of the lower classes become wealthier than many of the upper class aristocrats. Now many men from the lower classes buy land and/or titles. When lower class members become landowners, the idea of Divine Right to rule over the land no longer proves valid. Defoe illustrates society’s changes through Crusoe, who battles with the notion of God’s Providence. At certain moments he thanks God for His Providence, but then later conceives that actually God did not cause the ...

The World’s Wife ‘Little Red-Cap’

How true would it be to say that ‘Little Red-Cap’ is representative of the body of Carol Ann Duffy’s collection ‘The World’s Wife’? Duffy includes a range of themes, which are portrayed in an idiosyncratic way within the collection ‘The World’s Wife’. Most prominently ‘Little Red-Cap’ focuses on the issues of female dominance whilst contrasting it with female exploitation. Alongside, qualities of ambition and independence Duffy can represent her female characters as significant and therefore hinder men’s reputation in the current patriarchal society.This point is further elucidated by Michael Woods who stated ‘the poet fuses these ideas to reinforce the unremitting nullity that is forced upon many women when they are required to take a man's name in place of their own. In fact, the central theme of The World's Wife is encapsulated in this critique upon male arrogance. ’ [1]. Particularly this is something Duffy concentrates on in ‘Queen Herod’, ‘Mrs Rip Van Winkle’, ‘Thetis’ and ‘Mrs Aesop’ alongside ‘Little Red-Cap’. In order to intensify the value of women in society Duffy typically portrays her female characters as more dominant than the males.In ‘Little Red-Cap’ the adolescent’s control is clear especially in the final and penultimate stanzas as the twist on the original tale of Little Red Riding Hood ‘I took an axe to the wolf as he slept, one chop’ gives the narrator the power to dominate over the controlling, male character. Her impatience to escape the wolf’s rugged seduction is especially evident from Duffy’s use of enjambment between these two stanzas where she ‘took an axe / to a willow to see how it wept’.Further her power is apparent from the last line, ‘singing, all alone’, as Duffy explicates the satisfaction with her t riumphant victory over the dark character without the assistance from the hero, typically being a male character. Duffy identifies the problem in which men are portrayed in ‘Queen Herod’ where women commonly see men, deceptively, as a ‘Hero’, ‘Hunk’, ‘the je t’adore’ and showing that this is a problem by incorporating the negatives in contrast, such as ‘The Wolf’, ‘The Rip’, ‘The Rat’.In comparison, the humorous pun used in the final stanza of ‘Mrs Aesop’ portrays the female as over powering through the trenchant ridiculing of the male’s ‘little cock that wouldn’t crow’. Following this, the witty threat; ‘I’ll cut off your tail, all right, I said, to save my face’, which refers to the Bobbit case where his wife cut off his penis, is suggestive of threatening the same act upon him, which ‘shut him up’ and she Ã¢â‚¬Ë œlaughed last, longest’ proving how much control Mrs Aesop has over her husband.Comparatively, there is a distinct semantic field of power in ‘Queen Herod’ from the use of phrases such as ‘I swore’, ‘Do it’ and ‘I sent for the Chief of Staff’, showing the power, and confidence in that power, that Queen Herod has over the male characters. Perhaps this portrayal by Duffy is to influence women that this attitude can be acceptable and possible in our modern day society. Despite this, Duffy contrasts the power of the female gender with the exploitation of females in society.The wolf in ‘Little Red-Cap’ is alluring whilst his chin beholds a hidden sign of adulthood; ‘red wine staining’. The last line of the second stanza ‘he spotted me, sweet sixteen, never been, babe, waif, and bought me a drink’ elucidates the overpowering control the wolf has over the adolescent. It is considerably regarde d as an issue as the adolescent initially sees the wolf as seductive rather than threatening, as seen in most modern day relationships. Perhaps here Duffy is attempting to inform the reader of the dangers of growing up too fast in the company of an influential man.Particularly, in ‘Mrs Rip Van Winkle’ the female ‘sank like a stone’ as if drowning, which creates a traumatic and confining image where the narrator has lost control and explicates her failure. The use of ‘still’ in the extended metaphor ‘I sank like a stone into the still, deep waters of late middle age’ suggests a sense of calmness contrasting with the panic of drowning in from experiencing the menopause. This contrasts gives off the suggestion that it is only the woman that changes meanwhile the rest of the world remains ‘still’ and composed.This is compared with ‘Thetis’ where female exploitation is extremely acknowledged. Similarly, the wif e of Thetis ‘shrank’ and ‘sank’ herself to escape the controlling power of the male character. Identifying this issue allows the reader to regard it seriously thus influencing the reader, which is most likely to be female, to share feminist views and condemn the male population. ‘Little Red-Cap’ especially consists of the themes ambition and independence whilst growing up.The story of ‘childhood’s end’ is the transition from innocence to experience with a journey of impetuous turmoil to find love, passion, sex and independence. For Little Red-Cap, poetry is the reason why she chooses ambition because of its richness, the mystery of its ambiguity and the wolf (the dark, mysterious character) can provide this for her. Perhaps, for Little Red-Cap, growing up is poetic and therefore desirable. This can easily be compared with ‘Mrs Rip Van Winkle’ who, ‘while he slept’, found adventure in her life.As she explains ‘I found some hobbies for myself’ it is evident that she is thinking only of what she wants from the use of personal pronouns for the first and last words of the statement, which further portrays him as unimportant regarding her development in reaching triumph in adventure. This is especially explicated through the sibilance of ‘seeing the sights’ as it conveys these adventures as stimulating thus influencing her female readers to reach out further than their heterosexual relationship.Clearly, Duffy’s collection consists of various profound and weighty subjects and ‘Little Red-Cap’ contains the majority of the themes present in the collection. In an interview in 2005 with Duffy the interviewer, Barry Wood, identified particular poems in this collection that ‘are unashamedly set in a contemporary idiom, re-casting the old stories in terms of modern life’ allowing Duffy to ‘subvert[ing] them’ [2]. Arguab ly, the act of modernisation here allows her readers to identify with the aforementioned issues raised.This therefore allows hope for the future for women regarding their status and value as individuals rather than as simply wives or mothers. As a homosexual, Duffy’s feminist views coincided with the notably iconic statement made by Dorothy Parker; ‘heterosexuality is not normal, it’s just common’ as her collection ‘takes a very common relationship – that of man and wife – and presents a collection of poetic monologues from the perspective of the wife’ [3] in order to give the world’s wife a voice. Little Red-Cap’ has been identified as a personal account of her relationship with her ex-husband in the interview with Barry Wood as he suggestively asks ‘with a strong autobiographical investment, focusing on the idea of yourself as a young poet, asserting your independence. ’ with a reply of ‘CAD:   Yes. ’ therefore proving that the poem is reflective of Duffy’s feminist views and opinions on heterosexual relationships. The World’s Wife’ consists of providing wives of famous and infamous historic, fictional and biblical male characters a voice in society as the majority were not even considered, whilst commonly criticising the male population for its ignorance, arrogance, selfishness; the list is incessant. Because it is a personal poem Duffy’s views are most definitely included within ‘Little Red-Cap’ as are they included in the collection as a whole. Therefore the poem of subjection is representative of the collection ‘The World’s Wife’.Word count: With quotes- 1,245 Without quotes- 952 Bibliography: 1. Michael Woods critique of Queen Herod: http://www. sheerpoetry. co. uk/advanced/carol-ann-duffy/notes-on-selected-poems-advanced/queen-herod 2. Interview with Carol Ann Duffy and Barry Wood: http://www. shee rpoetry. co. uk/advanced/interviews/carol-ann-duffy-the-world-s-wife in 2005. 3. An essay written by username: doralulusparky http://www. studymode. com/essays/The-World-s-Wife-Carol-Ann-Duffy-598083. html in February 2011.

Contradictions between Human Civilization and Natural...

White Noise is a celebrated post-modernist novel by Don DeLillo. The background setting is a small town called Blacksmith and the College-on-the-Hill which is located in the town. The novel depicts Jack’s family’s and the townspeople’s day-to-day life and their performance in a cataclysmic event, vividly showing the life in a modern society. The relationship between man and nature is one of the focuses of the novel. â€Å"Simply defined, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment†¦ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies.† (Glotfeltyz). The natural environment that the characters in White Noise inhabit has been seriously ruined. The contradictions between human civilization and natural environment are revealed in many aspects in the novel. Deterioration of natural environment is the most direct consequence of nature’s absence. Man has abandoned a pastoral life and turned the world into an ugly and unpleasant place. In White Noise proofs can be found everywhere. City is changing the environment and climate in which man lives. â€Å"The heat of air, traffic and people. The heat of food and sex. The heat of tall buildings. The heat that floats out of the subways and the tunnels. It’s always fifteen degrees hotter in the cities. Heat rises from the sidewalks and falls from the poisoned sky. The buses breathe heat. Heat emanates from crowds of shoppers and office workers. The entire infrastructure is based on